One of the most frustrating problems of converting PDF to other digital file formats is compatibility. Ever have one of those moments? You receive a converted file which you can’t open or view, let alone edit? If you have, then you know what we’re talking about. Converting PDFs to the right format can get more confusing because some word processors can support certain file formats, while others can’t. Then depending on the version of the application, it can get even more complicated. If you’re trying to figure out which file format to convert to, here are a few general guidelines and some information about each format to help you make the right choice.

Doing EconOlllics: A Guide to Understanding and Carrying Out Economic Research Steven A. Greenlaw University. Missimer (1995) defines critical thinking as the evaluation of competing arguments on the basis of their evidence. Thus, it involves the ability to recognize and assess an argument and its.

Microsoft Word 97, 2000, XP, 2003 (.DOC) A.DOC file is the number format for creating general documents like essays, brochures and formatted resumes. The format can handle mixed content very well and can be used to create all different types of printed material such as labels and business cards. That being said, when your main focus is on sharing and making the textual PDF content editable, a standard PDF to.DOC conversion is all you need. PDF text, graphics and tables will be transferred over into a multi-purpose document users can easily access. A few tips and notes: •.DOC is backwards compatible with all MS Word versions.

• Mac users can create.DOC files with Word for Mac and. • Convert to.DOC when you aren’t sure which version of MS Word your recipient is using. • In Able2Doc, the Word conversion output is set to the default setting which detects and converts to whichever MS Word version you have installed. Change this via the • Change the default saving format in Word (via Office button>Options>Save) to formats you regularly share and send. Microsoft Word 2007, 2010, 2013 (.DOCX) The DOCX file format was released with MS Word 2007. It is now the default format for MS Word 2007, 2010 and 2013.

Like the.DOC format, a.DOCX file is used for generating editable documents. The major difference is in the, which has a hard time playing nice with other applications. Although more suites are now getting support for the format, double check with your recipient if he or she can open a.DOCX file before you convert. Users with older MS Word versions will need a workaround to interact with the file (uploading it to Google Docs, downloading a plug-in, or converting the file), which can be a huge hassle. When in doubt, convert PDF to.DOC instead. Tips: •.DOCX isn’t compatible with older versions of MS Word without a plug-in • If you always convert PDF to.DOCX but have earlier versions of Word, you can change the default setting in Able2Doc and always convert to.DOCX (Word 2007) as a default • Some MS Word 2013 features might not show up in version 2010 or 2007, and the Word 2013 file will open in. • • You can for free online.

OpenOffice Writer (.ODT) As the popularity of open source grows, the.ODT is fast becoming one of the main formats to work with. The vendor neutral.ODT file is OpenOffice’s native word processing format used primarily within open source environments. As such, convert PDF to.ODT when working with open source applications and users. Also, pay attention to how.ODT files interact with MS Word. By doing so, you can side-step any compatibility issues that pop up with the converted file.

A few things to know: • Different versions of MS Office have slight differences in. Versions 2007 and 2010 can save to ODF 1.1, but can’t open ODF 1.2.

MS Office 2013 can’t save to ODF 1.1. • will have an effect on which features from.DOCX will remain supported in the new.ODT file. • Able2Doc converts PDF to both OpenOffice Writer and MS Word. No plug-in needed • Starting from MS Word 2007, you can save your documents to.ODT with SP2 installed. •.ODT can be imported by most word processors and online productivity suites. Rich Text (.RTF) A rich text file is a Microsoft text file that can keep basic formatting elements like bold, underlined or italic fonts. It can also support formatted content such as text alignment and bulleted lists.

Because.RTF files are easily accessible across different platforms, they make a good conversion output alternative when problem files can’t be opened. Other things to know: •.RTF files are generated with WordPad–included free with Windows OS via Accessories. • Able2Doc offers PDF to.RTF conversion as a default setting • The format can support inserted.JPG and.PNG images • Imported and exported by most word processing applications. Xbox 360 Arcade Themes Free Download. • May lose the more advanced MS Word features (annotations, WordArt, drawing objects) when saving to RTF. File Format Compatibility At A Glance Below is a quick glance summary. Included are links for more detailed information about supported file versions, limitations, and downloads.

File Format and Word Processor Compatibility Word Processor Being Used: File Format Supported? DOC DOCX ODT RTF Older versions of Microsoft Word (2000, XP, 20003) Yes required required Yes Microsoft Word 2007 Yes Yes Yes, with installed Yes Microsoft Word (2010, 2013) Yes Yes Yes iWork Pages Yes No Yes Microsoft Word for Mac (2008, 2011) Yes Yes No Yes Apache OpenOffice Writer Yes and later. Yes Yes LibreOffice Writer Yes Yes This table shows compatibility of MS Word, OpenOffice and RTF formats with different Word processors. There are many other applications out there, so let us know which ones we’ve missed and if you have any other best practice advice or tips yourself.

This is the simplest yardstick of economic performance. If one person, firm or country can produce more of something with the same amount of effort and resources, they have an absolute advantage over other producers. Being the best at something does not mean that doing that thing is the best way to use your scarce economic resources. The question of what to specialise in--and how to maximise the benefits from international trade--is best decided according to. Both absolute and comparative advantage may change significantly over time. When you do business with people you would be better off avoiding. This is one of two main sorts of often associated with insurance.

The other is. Adverse selection can be a problem when there is between the seller of and the buyer; in particular, insurance will often not be profitable when buyers have better information about their risk of claiming than does the seller. Ideally, insurance premiums should be set according to the risk of a randomly selected person in the insured slice of the population (55-year-old male smokers, say). In practice, this means the of that group. When there is adverse selection, people who know they have a higher risk of claiming than the average of the group will buy the insurance, whereas those who have a below-average risk may decide it is too expensive to be worth buying.

In this case, premiums set according to the average risk will not be sufficient to cover the claims that eventually arise, because among the people who have bought the policy more will have above-average risk than below-average risk. Putting up the premium will not solve this problem, for as the premium rises the insurance policy will become unattractive to more of the people who know they have a lower risk of claiming. One way to reduce adverse selection is to make the purchase of insurance compulsory, so that those for whom insurance priced for average risk is unattractive are not able to opt out.

Many firms advertise their goods or services, but are they wasting economic resources? Some economists reckon that advertising merely manipulates consumer tastes and creates desires that would not otherwise exist. By increasing product differentiation and encouraging loyalty advertising may make consumers less price sensitive, moving the market further from towards imperfect competition (see ) and increasing the ability of firms to charge more than marginal cost.

Heavy spending on advertising may also create a barrier to entry, as a firm entering the market would have to spend a lot on advertising too. However, some economists argue that advertising is economically valuable because it increases the flow of information in the economy and reduces the asymmetric information between the seller and the consumer.

This intensifies competition, as consumers can be made aware quickly when there is a better deal on offer. These can arise when somebody (the principal) hires somebody else (the agent) to carry out a task and the interests of the agent conflict with the interests of the principal. An example of such principal-agent problems comes from the relationship between the shareholders who own a public company and the managers who run it. The owners would like managers to run the firm in ways that maximise the value of their shares, whereas the managers' priority may be, say, to build a business empire through rapid expansion and, which may not increase their firm's share price. One way to reduce agency costs is for the principal to monitor what the agent does to make sure it is what he has been hired to do.

But this can be costly, too. It may be impossible to define the agent's job in a way that can be monitored effectively.

For instance, it is hard to know whether a manager who has expanded a firm through an acquisition that reduced its share price was pursuing his own empire-building interests or, say, was trying to maximise shareholder value but was unlucky. Another way to lower agency costs, especially when monitoring is too expensive or too difficult, is to make the interests of the agent more like those of the principal. For instance, an increasingly common solution to the agency costs arising from the separation of ownership and management of public companies is to pay managers partly with shares and share options in the company. This gives the managers a powerful incentive to act in the interests of the owners by maximising shareholder value. But even this is not a perfect solution. Some managers with lots of share options have engaged in accounting fraud in order to increase the value of those options long enough for them to cash some of them in, but to the detriment of their firm and its other shareholders.

See, for example,. Countries often provide support for their farmers using trade barriers and because, for example: *domestic agriculture, even if it is inefficient by world standards, can be an insurance policy in case it becomes difficult (as it does, for example, in wartime) to buy agricultural produce from abroad; *farmers groups have proved adept at lobbying; *politicians have sought to slow the depopulation of rural areas; *agricultural prices can be volatile, as a result of unpredictable weather, among other things; and *financial support can provide a safety net in unexpectedly severe market conditions. Broadly speaking, governments have tried two methods of subsidising agriculture. The first, used in the United States during the 1930s and in the UK before it joined the European Union, is to top up farmers' incomes if they fall below a level deemed acceptable. Farmers may be required to set aside some of their land in return for this support. The second is to guarantee a minimum level of farm prices by buying up surplus supply and storing or destroying it if prices would otherwise fall below the guaranteed levels.

This was the approach adopted by the EU when it set up its Common Agricultural Policy. To keep down the direct cost of this subsidy the EU used trade barriers, including import levies, to minimise competition to EU farmers from produce available more cheaply on world agriculture markets. Recent American farm-support policy has combined income top-ups and some guaranteed prices. As most governments have become more committed to international trade, such agricultural policies have come under increasing attack, although the free trade rhetoric has often run far ahead of genuine reform.

In 2003, rich countries together spent over $300 billion a year supporting their farmers, more than six times what they spent on foreign. Finding a way to end agricultural support had become by far the biggest remaining challenge for those trying to negotiate global.

Farming around the world continues to become more productive while generally accounting for a smaller share of employment and, although in some poor countries it remains the sector on which the country and its people depend. Farming, forestry and fishing in 1913 accounted for 28% of employment in the United States, 41% in France and 60% in Japan, but only 12% in the UK.

Now the proportion of the workforce employed in such activities has dropped below 6% in these and most other industrialised countries. The total value of international trade in agriculture has risen steadily. But the global agriculture market remains severely distorted by trade barriers and government subsidy, such as the 's Common. It is often alleged that altruism is inconsistent with economic rationality, which assumes that people behave selfishly. Certainly, much economic analysis is concerned with how individuals behave, and homo economicus () is usually assumed to act in his or her self-interest.

However, self-interest does not necessarily mean selfish. Some economic models in the field of assume that self-interested individuals behave altruistically because they get some benefit, or, from doing so. For instance, it may make them feel better about themselves, or be a useful insurance policy against social unrest, say. Some economic models go further and relax the traditional assumption of fully rational behaviour by simply assuming that people sometimes behave altruistically, even if this may be against their self-interest. Either way, there is much economic literature about charity,, and redistributive taxation. The colourful name that gave to one of the essential ingredients of economic prosperity: confidence.

According to Keynes, animal spirits are a particular sort of confidence, 'naive optimism'. He meant this in the sense that, for entrepreneurs in particular, 'the thought of ultimate loss which often overtakes pioneers, as experience undoubtedly tells us and them, is put aside as a healthy man puts aside the expectation of death'. Where these animal spirits come from is something of a mystery. Certainly, attempts by politicians and others to talk up confidence by making optimistic noises about economic prospects have rarely done much good. Policy for dealing with. Antitrust laws aim to stop abuses of market power by big companies and, sometimes, to prevent corporate that would create or strengthen a monopolist.

There have been big differences in antitrust policies both among countries and within the same country over time. This has reflected different ideas about what constitutes a monopoly and, where there is one, what sorts of behaviour are abusive. In the United States, monopoly policy has been built on the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890.

This prohibited contracts or conspiracies to restrain trade or, in the words of a later act, to monopolise commerce. In the early 20th century this law was used to reduce the economic power wielded by so-called 'robber barons', such as JP Morgan and John D. Rockefeller, who dominated much of American industry through huge trusts that controlled companies' voting shares. Du Pont chemicals, the railroad companies and Rockefeller's Standard Oil, among others, were broken up. In the 1970s the Sherman Act was turned (ultimately without success) against IBM, and in 1982 it secured the break-up of AT&T's nationwide telecoms monopoly. In the 1980s a more approach was adopted, underpinned by economic theories from the. These theories said that the only justification for antitrust intervention should be that a lack of competition harmed consumers, and not that a firm had become, in some ill-defined sense, too big.

Some monopolistic activities previously targeted by antitrust authorities, such as predatory pricing and exclusive marketing agreements, were much less harmful to consumers than had been thought in the past. El Croquis Mvrdv Pdf File. They also criticised the traditional method of identifying a monopoly, which was based on looking at what percentage of a market was served by the biggest firm or firms, using a measure known as the.

Instead, they argued that even a market dominated by one firm need not be a matter of antitrust concern, provided it was a contestable market. In the 1990s American antitrust policy became somewhat more interventionist. A high-profile lawsuit was launched against Microsoft in 1998. The giant software company was found guilty of anti-competitive behaviour, which was said to slow the pace of innovation. However, fears that the firm would be broken up, signalling a far more interventionalist American antitrust policy, proved misplaced.

The firm was not severely punished. In the UK, antitrust policy was long judged according to what policymakers decided was in the public interest. At times this approach was comparatively permissive of mergers and acquisitions; at others it was less so. However, in the mid-1980s the UK followed the American lead in basing antitrust policy on whether changes in competition harmed consumers. Within the rest of the several big countries pursued policies of building up national champions, allowing chosen firms to enjoy some monopoly power at home which could be used to make them more effective competitors abroad. However, during the 1990s the European Commission became increasingly active in antitrust policy, mostly seeking to promote competition within the EU.

In 2000, the EU controversially blocked a merger between two American firms, GE and Honeywell; the deal had already been approved by America's antitrust regulators. The controversy highlighted an important issue.

As increases, the relevant market for judging whether market power exists or is being abused will increasingly cover far more territory than any one single economy. Indeed, there may be a need to establish a global antitrust watchdog, perhaps under the auspices of the. Buying an in one market and simultaneously selling an identical asset in another market at a higher price. Sometimes these will be identical assets in different markets, for instance, shares in a company listed on both the London Stock Exchange and New York Stock Exchange. Often the assets being arbitraged will be identical in a more complicated way, for example, they will be different sorts of financial that are each exposed to identical. Some kinds of arbitrage are completely risk-free-this is pure arbitrage. For instance, if are available more cheaply in dollars in London than in New York, arbitrageurs (also known as arbs) can make a risk-free by buying euros in London and selling an identical amount of them in New York.

Opportunities for pure arbitrage have become rare in recent years, partly because of the of. Today, a lot of so called arbitrage, much of it done by, involves assets that have some similarities but are not identical. This is not pure arbitrage and can be far from risk free. During 1997-98, many of the East Asian suffered a severe finanical and economic crisis. This had big consequences for the global, which had become increasingly exposed to the promise that Asia had seemed to offer. The crisis destroyed wealth on a massive scale and sent absolute poverty shooting up.

In the banking system alone, corporate loans equivalent to around half of one year's GDP went bad - a destruction of savings on a scale more usually associated with a full-scale war. The precise cause of the crisis remains a matter of debate. Fingers have been pointed at the adopted by some countries, and a reduction of in the years before the crisis. Some blamed economic.

The crisis brought an end to a then widespread belief that there was a distinct 'Asian way' of that might prove just as successful as capitalism in America or Europe. Instead, critics turned their fire on Asian cronyism, ill-disciplined banking and lack of.

In the years following the crisis, most of the countries involved have introduced reforms designed to increase transparency and improve the health of the banking system, although some (such as South Korea) went much further than others (such as Indonesia). When somebody knows more than somebody else. Such asymmetric information can make it difficult for the two people to do business together, which is why economists, especially those practising, are interested in it. Transactions involving asymmetric (or private) information are everywhere. A government selling broadcasting licences does not know what buyers are prepared to pay for them; a lender does not know how likely a borrower is to repay; a used-car seller knows more about the quality of the car being sold than do potential buyers.

This kind of asymmetry can distort people's incentives and result in significant inefficiencies. When something unexpected happens that affects one economy (or part of an economy) more than the rest. This can create big problems for policymakers if they are trying to set a that works for both the area affected by the and the unaffected area. For instance, some economic areas may be oil exporters and thus highly dependent on the of oil, but other areas are not. If the oil price plunges, the oil-dependent area would benefit from policies designed to boost demand that might be unsuited to the needs of the rest of the economy.

This may be a constant problem for those responsible for setting the for the given the big differences--and different potential exposures to shocks--among the economies within the. Going, going, gone. Holding an auction can be an extremely efficient way for a seller to set the price of its products, especially if it does not have much about how much people may be willing to pay for them. Auctions fascinate economists, especially those who specialise in.

They have long been a feature of the sale of art and antiques in the rooms of firms such as Sotheby's and Christie's. But in recent years they have played a growing role in other parts of the economy, ranging from the allocation of -controlled broadcasting bandwidth to the awarding of work to subcontractors by governments and big firms using competitive tendering, and even more recently the sale of goods over the Internet. An English auction is the most familiar. Bidders compete to offer higher prices and drop out until only one remains. In a Dutch auction, the auctioneer calls out a high price then keeps lowering it until there is a buyer. There are various forms of sealed bid auctions.

In a first price sealed bid, each buyer submits a price in a sealed envelope and all bids are opened simultaneously, with the highest offer winning. In a second (or third, fourth, and so on) price sealed bid, the highest bidder wins but pays only the second (third, fourth) highest price bid. An English or Dutch auction will work well for a seller if there is more than one serious bidder, as will ensure that the price is set at the level at which it is not worth more to any other bidder but the winner. Indeed, in a competitive auction the successful bidder may end up offering more than what is being auctioned is actually worth.

This is known as the winner's curse. Which method will generate the best price for the seller depends on how many bidders take part and how well informed they are. Unfortunately for the seller, this information is not always available before the auction takes place. A brand of neo-classical economics established in Vienna during the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. It was strongly opposed to Marxism and, more broadly, to the use of economic theories to justify intervention in the economy.

Prominent members included, and Ludwig von Mises. It gave birth to the definition of economics as the science of studying human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means that have alternative uses.

Austrian economic thinking was characterised by attributing all economic activity, including the behaviour of apparently impersonal institutions, to the wishes and actions of individuals. It did this by examining choices in terms of their (that is, what is the next best use of resources to that which is being considered?) and by analysing the impact of timing on decision making. Hayek correctly predicted the failure of Soviet-style central planning. His ideas are said to have inspired many of the free-market reforms carried out during the 1980s in the United States under Ronald Reagan and in the UK under Margaret Thatcher. Schumpeter developed a theory of innovation and economic change characterised by the phrase creative destruction. The idea that a country should be self-sufficient and not take part in international trade.

The experience of countries that have pursued this Utopian ideal by substituting domestic production for imports is an unhappy one. No country has been able to produce the full range of goods demanded by its population at competitive prices.

Indeed, those that have tried to do so have condemned themselves to inefficiency and comparative poverty, compared with countries that engage in international trade.